Kwale was Kenya's proof that a large mine could operate transparently: audited production, published payments to government, and a resettlement programme scrutinised by NGOs and courts alike. Its closure removes the bulk of Kenya's mineral export earnings and leaves the sector dependent on artisanal gold and construction materials.

Rehabilitation performance and the fate of the community trust arrangements are the questions that decide whether Kwale reads as a success in five years' time.

Base Titanium mined ilmenite, rutile and zircon from dune sands at Kwale from 2013, becoming Kenya's largest mining operation by export value and, for a decade, the practical proof that a modern mine could be permitted and run in the country.

Mining ended as the ore body was exhausted, moving the site into closure and rehabilitation, with exploration continuing on other Kenyan sands prospects.

Resettlement of Kwale households at the outset set the benchmark — and the grievances — for Kenyan mining compensation, and disputes over land values ran for years after the move.

The operation funded agricultural and water programmes and paid royalties shared with county government, so closure tests whether those arrangements were institutions or simply company spending.